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Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Data Analysis II

Essays — Tue, 26 Jan 2010 18:13:27 +0000

Table 5

Pairwise Comparison for Groups on Math Pre- and Post-Test Scores

Group (I) TIMPER (J) TIMEPER

Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error

Sig.

control 1 2

2 1

-13.000

13.000

2.920

.000

Experimental 1 2

2 1

-26.098

26.098

2.884

.000

Table 5 indicates that while there was a significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores for both groups, there was also a significant interaction in that the experimental group not only improve, they also made up the gap that existed at the pre-test (p = .05).

The results show that both the control and experimental groups significantly improved their math and reading skills over the twelve-week period. The experimental group actually showed more improvement than the control group based on their average scores. Students receiving the extra physical education moved from a pretest score average of 35.04 in Math to 61.13. Students in the control group moved from a pretest Math score of 44.16 to 57.16. Not only did the experimental group outperform the control on average, but they also made up a deficiency. This difference was significant (p =.05). On average pretest score in reading for the experimental group was 35.40 with a posttest improvement to 51.94. This is in comparison with the control group, whose pretest average score was 41.56 with a posttest improvement to 51.20. The results in reading were not scientifically different, but once again the extra physical education group made up a deficit.

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Data Analysis

Essays — Mon, 25 Jan 2010 17:06:24 +0000

Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS

In this study the entire third grade at Tryon participated in the study, with only one student not receiving parental permission. There were four 3rd grade classes. Two were randomly chosen to be the experimental group and two the control. The subjects had already been pre-assigned to their classes before selection. Data were collected using a pre and post-test in reading and mathematics. All subjects were given the same test, in the same testing environment. Their classroom teacher gave the tests in the regular classroom. The students were told that the results from this study would not affect their grades.

The control group consisted of 41 third grade students. Twenty-two were male; while nineteen were female. This was the same as the experimental group, which consisted of 41 students, twenty-two male and nineteen female.

Analysis of the Data

Separate repeated measures 2 x 2 ANOVA were used to determine whether there was a significant difference between the pre and post test scores for both the control and experimental groups for reading and math. A pairwise comparison for groups on the reading and math pre- and post-test scores was also conducted to test for significance of interaction between groups.

Results

Subjects in both the experimental group and the control group were given a pre-test and post-test for reading. The data for the sample are shown in Table 1.

Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS

This study was designed to explore the effects of increased physical education on reading and mathematics test scores in third grade students at Tryon Elementary. Reading and mathematics test scores were used to determine the differences between the control and experimental group. Those differences were measured by using a 2 x 2 ANOVA. In this study the entire third grade at Tryon participated in the study, with only one student not receiving parental permission. There were four 3rd grade classes. Two were randomly chosen to be the experimental group and two the control. The subjects had already been pre-assigned to their classes before selection. Data were collected using a pre and post-test in reading and mathematics. All subjects were given the same test, in the same testing environment. Their classroom teacher gave the tests in the regular classroom. The students were told that the results from this study would not affect their grades. The control group consisted of 41 third grade students. Twenty-two were male; while nineteen were female. This was the same as the experimental group, which consisted of 41 students, twenty-two male and nineteen female. Analysis of the Data
Separate repeated measures 2 x 2 ANOVA were used to determine whether there was a significant difference between the pre and post test scores for both the control and experimental groups for reading and math. A pairwise comparison for groups on the reading and math pre- and post-test scores was also conducted to test for significance of interaction between groups.Results
Subjects in both the experimental group and the control group were given a pre-test and post-test for reading. The data for the sample are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Summary of Means and Standard Deviations for Both Groups for Pre- and Post Reading Tests

Group N Mean SD Std. Error Mean

Pre-Test Control

Pre-Test Experimental 40

41 41.5632

35.4046 18.23106

15.08687 2.88258

2.35617

Post-Test Control

Post-Test Experimental 40

41 51.2095

51.9495 18.38346

15.65312 2.90668

2.44461

Subjects in both the experimental group and the control group were also given a pre- and post-test for math. The data for the sample are displayed in Table 2.

Table 2

Summary of Means and Standard Deviations for Both Groups for Pre- and Post-Tests for Math

Group N Mean SD Std. Error Mean

Pre-Test Control

Pre-Test Experimental 40

41 44.1663

35.0405 18.50159

16.96613 2.92536

2.64966

Post-Test Control

Post-Test Experimental 40

41 57.1665

61.1380 21.47744

22.65192 3.39588

3.53764

The research question was whether there was a significant difference between the experimental and control groups on pre- and post-test scores for reading and math. It was expected that both groups would improve; however, based on current research, it was expected that the experimental group would show more improvement. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA on two factors, group and time. The data for the reading scores for both groups relative to time (pre and post) are reported in Table 3.

Table 3

Analysis of Variance Summary Between Groups Relative to Time on Pre- and Post-Test Scores for Reading

Source df Mean Square F Sig.

TIMEPER 1 69 55.664 .000

TIMEPER 1 48.786 3.862 .053

Error (TIMEPER) 79 124.757

Table 3 shows that there was a significant difference between time periods in that both groups improved from pre- to post-test (p = .95).

Data for the math pre-and post-tests scores for both groups were also analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA on two factors, group and time. The data for the math scores for both groups relative to time (pre and post) are reported in Table 4.

Table 4

Analysis of Variance Summary Between Groups Relative to Time on Pre- and Post-Test Scores for Math

Source df Mean Square F Sig.

TIMEPER 1 15475.109 90.734 .000

TIMEPER 1 1736.573 10.182 .002

Error (TIMEPER) 79 170.555

Table 4 shows that there was a significant difference between time periods in that both groups improved from pre- to post-test (p = .95). It should be noted that the experimental group scored much lower on the pre-test than the control group. Thus, a pairwise comparison was made to determine significance of interaction between the two groups. Date are reported in Table 5.

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part VIII

Essays — Sat, 23 Jan 2010 18:08:59 +0000

Shephard and Lavalle (1994) strongly suggest that the findings in this study do not warrant a strong argument for daily physical education among primary students. The impact of the added physical education should not be under estimated; however, the differences in the field and performance test were not substantial enough to make immediate changes in the field of physical education.
Summary
In conclusion, all but one of the studies showed that more physical education might indeed enhance the academic process. There was no research to indicate that additional physical education could impede the academic achievement of learning through classroom instruction. No justification was found in cutting physical education programs to allow more time for classroom instruction. However, further research is needed to add validity to the argument of whether extra physical education can enhance academic learning. With this proposal, the researcher hopes to be able to advocate in favor of additional physical education. All of the previous studies directly relate to the upcoming research that is proposed. If the results coincide with the research that was reviewed, this will be a positive outcome.

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part VII

Essays — Fri, 22 Jan 2010 18:37:16 +0000

Caterino and Polak (1999) conducted a second study that looked at the effects physical activity had on concentration. Administrators and teachers are constantly criticizing what part of the school day that physical education should take place. There is a constant concern that physical education will influence testing and classroom learning. This study was a follow up study that Caterino and Polak conducted in 1994. In the previous study, fourth grade was the only grade used.
Caterino et al. administered the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Concentration to a group of second, third and fourth graders. The students in the test were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: classroom activity or physical activity. Grade two consisted of 54 students, with 27 in each group. Grade three was made up of 71 students with 36 in the classroom group and 35 in the physical activity group. Grade four consisted of 52 students with 27 in the classroom group and 25 in the physical activity group.
According to Caterino and Polak (1999), the classroom activities group did not use pre-designed activities; however, all activities were grade level appropriate, and approved through weekly lesson plans. On the day of the test, the classroom activities group went immediately into the library to take the test, while the physical activities group went into the gym to stretch and walk. The physical activity group remained in the gym for 15 minutes then went directly to take the test. Both groups were given the same test with the same instructions.
Date from Caterino and Polak (1999) were analyzed using both a one-way ANOVA and a two-way ANOVA. The Scheffe multiple comparison test was also used. The one-way ANOVA was performed on fourth grade scores. The results indicated that the mean concentration score of the physical activity group was significantly greater than that of the classroom activity group (p = .05). The two-way ANOVA showed overall significance (p = .001). However, when the mean scores were compared between grades two and three, they were not significant. Furthermore, the Scheffe test revealed no significant differences between grades two and three, but showed that the physical activity group in the fourth grade out performed the classroom activity group.
The Caterino and Polak (1999) study was important in demonstrating how that physical education does not interfere with concentration levels of the students who were tested. This supports other studies that claim that physical education should not be cut in order to achieve academic success. (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997; Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983; Janz, Dawson, & Mahoney, 2000; Sallis, McKenzie, Kolody, Lewis, Marshall & Rosengard, 1999)
Shephard and Lavalle (1994) examined the value of field performance test in assessing enhanced physical education programs. It was an experimental design that took place in two primary schools in Quebec. One school was located in a middle class suburb of Trois Rivieres (population 100,000), and the other from the village of Pont Rouge (population about 4000). The study consisted of 546 volunteer students between grades one-six. There were 161 boys and 134 girls in the four experimental classes, and 128 boys and 123 girls in the control classes. Two hundred thirty six of the subjects were from the urban school and 310 from the rural school. The two schools each had two experimental classes and two control classes. The control classes preceded and immediately succeeded the experimental groups. The guidelines for the experiment were that the control groups received the norm of a single physical education class per week, taught by a non-specialist. The experimental group received one hour of extra physical education daily, taught by a physical education specialist.
Shephard and Lavalle (1994) measured each subject using the Canadian Association for Physical Education and Recreation (CAHPER) field performance test. This test was administered in early June and late October each year. Within two weeks of their birthday, the students were measured for aerobic power and muscle strength. The focus of the experimental group was to provide cardiovascular and muscular endurance activities. The increase of their heart rate was the main goal. Categories that were measured by the researchers were peak oxygen intake, muscular strength, and Body mass index. There were six items on the CAHPER performance that were observed.
Data were analyzed using Shephard and Lavalle (1994) MANOVA to compare the differences between groups. The results for the physical characteristics showed only significant differences among girls’ age seven and eight in relation to height. The girls in the urban schools were significantly taller than the girls in the rural school. The performance test showed that the boys were significantly (p < .05) superior in 29 of 36 comparisons. The boys also had higher peak oxygen intake at a significant level (p < .05). The MANOVA also showed that the experimental group reported a higher average strength. This was significant in 21 of 36 tests (p < .05).

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part VI

Essays — Thu, 21 Jan 2010 09:58:29 +0000

Janz et al (2000) examined several different areas: body composition, sexual maturation, aerobic physical fitness, muscular fitness, and physical activity. All of the data analysis was stratified by gender. The data from year 1 of the study was compared to the data of year 5 using a Wilcoxon signed rank test, to determine if there were changes over time. Fitness and physical activity were measured two different ways. First, the Spearman rank correlation coefficients were calculated to determine how well year five results were predicted in year one. Second, they were categorized into tertiles. The statistical significance of tracking the tertiles was assessed using Kendall’s tau-b. The subjects received one yearly physical examination for five years, and they received a total of 20 examinations, four per year, to assess physical activity and body composition.
Janz et al (2000) examined the results from the 5-year study and discovered that, mean body mass, height, and fat free mass increased each year for both boys and girls. By year four, 42% of the boys were in post or late puberty (mean age 13.8yr), and by year five, 75% of the girls were in late or post puberty (mean age 14.2yr). Peak VO2 was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in year one than year five for the boys and girls, with girls being two times greater than boys were. There were no significant differences in peak HR from year one to year five. Peak O2 pulse increased from year one to year five in both boys and girls. The Spearman correlation between variables assessed at year five compared to year one generally showed a decline in the strength of the association over the 5-year time period. The correlation was used to determine the tracking predictability. In boys and girls, peak power, peak grip strength, and peak VO2 showed the highest degree of tracking. In boys, the peak power and peak grip had correlation ranges from 0.68 to 0.90. Peak VO2, peak HR, peak O2 pulse. Girl’s results were similar with a few exceptions. Peak power and peak grip showed the highest degree of tracking with correlation range from 0.52 to 0.80.
The results that were compiled by Janz et al (2000) demonstrated important information in regard to the predictability and tracking of physical fitness and both vigorous and sedentary activity. These variables were shown to be stable and very capable of being tracked from childhood to adolescence. The study indicated that boys tend to settle into fitness and activity patterns sooner than girls do. The fact that sedentary activity was stable throughout the study seems to warrant that there should be early intervention for females. This study clearly indicated that certain variables associated with physical fitness and physical activity can be accurately tracked from childhood to adolescence.
Caterino and Polak (1993) conducted a study on the effects that three types of activity have on performance on a test of concentration among fourth grade children. This study was an experimental study used to further investigate the benefits of physical activity. The researchers believed that by conducting the study they would show that physical activity at worst, had no detrimental impact towards concentration.
Caterino and Polak’s (1993) experiment was a one-day study in which 60 fourth grade students were randomly assigned to three separate treatment groups. The three groups were a recess group, (n=19) passive activity group, (n=20) and physical activity group (n=21).
According to Caterino and Polak (1993), the experiment took place immediately after lunch. The subjects reported to their assigned groups, and for the next 15 minutes they participated in their groups’ assigned activity. The recess group was allowed to play freely as normal. The passive group viewed a Garfield videotape in the library, while the physical activity group engaged in 15-minutes of stretching and aerobic walking. At the end of the 15-minute period all three treatments reported to an all-purpose room and took the Woodcock-Johnson (1989) test of concentration.
Caterino and Polak (1993) indicated that data collected from an ANOVA showed that there were no significant differences between the three treatments. However, it did show that there were significant differences between fourth grade males and females (p < .02), in favor of females. The fact that there were no differences between the three groups indicates that there is no reason to worry about the time that physical education is scheduled in regards to the curriculum. The report of the differences between the males and females show that there needs to be further research to determine what extent the independent factors of academic ability test taking ability and the ability to concentrate had on the test results. While there were no significant differences, the means of the physical activity group were higher than the other two groups.

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part V

Essays — Wed, 20 Jan 2010 09:45:57 +0000

Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Mirjana, Rajic, and Shephard (1996) conducted a long-term follow up study of the participants in the previously mentioned Trios-Rivieres study. This study took place some 20 years after the participants’ initial involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of daily primary physical education on their now adult life. Areas investigated were level of habitual physical activity, the different types of activities, and the attitudes towards physical activity. This study was done by contacting participants 20 years after they had participated in the Trios-Rivieres study. During that study, 546 primary students of both genders were placed into two groups, experimental or control. The experimental group received five hours of physical education per week targeted at increasing muscular and aerobic capacity. The control group received the standard physical education of 40 minutes per week taught by the homeroom teacher.

During the follow up study, 178 of the original 272 experimental group members were contacted. Each of those participants were sent a questionnaire and consent form. One hundred forty-nine of the questionnaire and consent forms were returned. Due to concerns of cross contamination over the twenty-year period, the experimental groups status was compared to a matched control group from a Quebec health survey (1993). The control group was matched in terms of age, language, and socioeconomic profile.

Results, according to Trudeau et al (1996) were calculated by using SPSS system. A two sample chi-squared test (p < 0.05) was applied to frequency distributions to assess the statistical significance of differences between groups. A t-test (p < 0.05) was applied to evaluate differences in height and body mass. As a whole the experimental group did not show a higher frequency of physical activity than the control group. However, the women did show a higher frequency of physical activity (p<0.01). There were no differences between the groups in regards toward intention to practice physical activity. There were no reportable differences in attitudes between the control and experimental group, as well as between genders. The experimental group did not show that they had more opportunities to practice physical activity. When genders were combined the experimental group showed a lower proportion of regular smokers than the control group (p < 0.01). However, when separated there were no differences between women in either group. As far as height and weight, the experimental men reported a higher height (p < 0.05) and greater body weight (p < 0.01) than the control men.

The general consensus was that more activity during childhood benefited adulthood. However, this study does not support this consensus. The results of this follow up study were very discouraging. The study was considered to be the first adult follow up in regards to physical activity habits. Trudeau et al (1996)

In reporting weakness of the study, Trudeau et al (1996) discussed the impossibility of administering more sophisticated questionnaires to the subjects. The fact that the female subjects reacted more positively to the experiment was addressed. In Canada, during the time of the original study in the early 1970’s, it was relatively unusual for girls to socialize in sport or leisure activity. After the 1976 Olympic games in Montreal, females showed a strong interest toward sports and physical activity. This trend could have had an impact on the study, but there is no way of putting the two together. One strength of the study according to Trudeau et al (1996) was the original well-controlled manipulation, which allowed for increased time on physical activity in the experimental group of children. Another strength was the rate of return of the questionnaire, which reduced the possibility of selection bias. The study showed that there is much research needed to prove that more primary physical education will positively affect adult life.

Janz, Dawson, and Mahoney (2000) also examined effects of physical activity past childhood. The purpose of this study was to track fitness and physical activity data to grasp a better understanding of when children establish long-term fitness and exercise patterns. This study, also known as the Muscatine study, was a longitudinal; population based investigation of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children from Muscatine, IA. After a cross sectional screening of 925 Muscatine school children, 150 subjects of pre-pubertal age were selected. After the parents were contacted and consent was given, only 130 subjects were able to participate. Four of the 130 were discarded after physical examines showed that they had already begun significant pubertal development. Out of the 126 subjects, 64 were males and 62 were females. All subjects completed the baseline research procedures. After five years, 87% of the subjects attempted all of the research procedures. All of the subjects tested were Caucasian.

The fact that the subjects were randomly selected reduced the chances of threats to internal validity. The sample size was derived from a wide cross-section of socioeconomic status and ethnic groups. The weakness of the study was the fact that there were no control schools in phase II. Furthermore, there were some reported differences in the way each school implemented its physical activity programs for this study. Overall, it was a very strong study that remained consistent with similar studies (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997)). Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Mirjana, Rajic, and Shephard (1996) conducted a long-term follow up study of the participants in the previously mentioned Trios-Rivieres study. This study took place some 20 years after the participants’ initial involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of daily primary physical education on their now adult life. Areas investigated were level of habitual physical activity, the different types of activities, and the attitudes towards physical activity. This study was done by contacting participants 20 years after they had participated in the Trios-Rivieres study. During that study, 546 primary students of both genders were placed into two groups, experimental or control. The experimental group received five hours of physical education per week targeted at increasing muscular and aerobic capacity. The control group received the standard physical education of 40 minutes per week taught by the homeroom teacher.During the follow up study, 178 of the original 272 experimental group members were contacted. Each of those participants were sent a questionnaire and consent form. One hundred forty-nine of the questionnaire and consent forms were returned. Due to concerns of cross contamination over the twenty-year period, the experimental groups status was compared to a matched control group from a Quebec health survey (1993). The control group was matched in terms of age, language, and socioeconomic profile.Results, according to Trudeau et al (1996) were calculated by using SPSS system. A two sample chi-squared test (p < 0.05) was applied to frequency distributions to assess the statistical significance of differences between groups. A t-test (p < 0.05) was applied to evaluate differences in height and body mass. As a whole the experimental group did not show a higher frequency of physical activity than the control group. However, the women did show a higher frequency of physical activity (p<0.01). There were no differences between the groups in regards toward intention to practice physical activity. There were no reportable differences in attitudes between the control and experimental group, as well as between genders. The experimental group did not show that they had more opportunities to practice physical activity. When genders were combined the experimental group showed a lower proportion of regular smokers than the control group (p < 0.01). However, when separated there were no differences between women in either group. As far as height and weight, the experimental men reported a higher height (p < 0.05) and greater body weight (p < 0.01) than the control men.The general consensus was that more activity during childhood benefited adulthood. However, this study does not support this consensus. The results of this follow up study were very discouraging. The study was considered to be the first adult follow up in regards to physical activity habits. Trudeau et al (1996)In reporting weakness of the study, Trudeau et al (1996) discussed the impossibility of administering more sophisticated questionnaires to the subjects. The fact that the female subjects reacted more positively to the experiment was addressed. In Canada, during the time of the original study in the early 1970’s, it was relatively unusual for girls to socialize in sport or leisure activity. After the 1976 Olympic games in Montreal, females showed a strong interest toward sports and physical activity. This trend could have had an impact on the study, but there is no way of putting the two together. One strength of the study according to Trudeau et al (1996) was the original well-controlled manipulation, which allowed for increased time on physical activity in the experimental group of children. Another strength was the rate of return of the questionnaire, which reduced the possibility of selection bias. The study showed that there is much research needed to prove that more primary physical education will positively affect adult life.Janz, Dawson, and Mahoney (2000) also examined effects of physical activity past childhood. The purpose of this study was to track fitness and physical activity data to grasp a better understanding of when children establish long-term fitness and exercise patterns. This study, also known as the Muscatine study, was a longitudinal; population based investigation of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children from Muscatine, IA. After a cross sectional screening of 925 Muscatine school children, 150 subjects of pre-pubertal age were selected. After the parents were contacted and consent was given, only 130 subjects were able to participate. Four of the 130 were discarded after physical examines showed that they had already begun significant pubertal development. Out of the 126 subjects, 64 were males and 62 were females. All subjects completed the baseline research procedures. After five years, 87% of the subjects attempted all of the research procedures. All of the subjects tested were Caucasian.