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Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part VII

Essays — Fri, 22 Jan 2010 18:37:16 +0000

Caterino and Polak (1999) conducted a second study that looked at the effects physical activity had on concentration. Administrators and teachers are constantly criticizing what part of the school day that physical education should take place. There is a constant concern that physical education will influence testing and classroom learning. This study was a follow up study that Caterino and Polak conducted in 1994. In the previous study, fourth grade was the only grade used.
Caterino et al. administered the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Concentration to a group of second, third and fourth graders. The students in the test were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: classroom activity or physical activity. Grade two consisted of 54 students, with 27 in each group. Grade three was made up of 71 students with 36 in the classroom group and 35 in the physical activity group. Grade four consisted of 52 students with 27 in the classroom group and 25 in the physical activity group.
According to Caterino and Polak (1999), the classroom activities group did not use pre-designed activities; however, all activities were grade level appropriate, and approved through weekly lesson plans. On the day of the test, the classroom activities group went immediately into the library to take the test, while the physical activities group went into the gym to stretch and walk. The physical activity group remained in the gym for 15 minutes then went directly to take the test. Both groups were given the same test with the same instructions.
Date from Caterino and Polak (1999) were analyzed using both a one-way ANOVA and a two-way ANOVA. The Scheffe multiple comparison test was also used. The one-way ANOVA was performed on fourth grade scores. The results indicated that the mean concentration score of the physical activity group was significantly greater than that of the classroom activity group (p = .05). The two-way ANOVA showed overall significance (p = .001). However, when the mean scores were compared between grades two and three, they were not significant. Furthermore, the Scheffe test revealed no significant differences between grades two and three, but showed that the physical activity group in the fourth grade out performed the classroom activity group.
The Caterino and Polak (1999) study was important in demonstrating how that physical education does not interfere with concentration levels of the students who were tested. This supports other studies that claim that physical education should not be cut in order to achieve academic success. (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997; Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983; Janz, Dawson, & Mahoney, 2000; Sallis, McKenzie, Kolody, Lewis, Marshall & Rosengard, 1999)
Shephard and Lavalle (1994) examined the value of field performance test in assessing enhanced physical education programs. It was an experimental design that took place in two primary schools in Quebec. One school was located in a middle class suburb of Trois Rivieres (population 100,000), and the other from the village of Pont Rouge (population about 4000). The study consisted of 546 volunteer students between grades one-six. There were 161 boys and 134 girls in the four experimental classes, and 128 boys and 123 girls in the control classes. Two hundred thirty six of the subjects were from the urban school and 310 from the rural school. The two schools each had two experimental classes and two control classes. The control classes preceded and immediately succeeded the experimental groups. The guidelines for the experiment were that the control groups received the norm of a single physical education class per week, taught by a non-specialist. The experimental group received one hour of extra physical education daily, taught by a physical education specialist.
Shephard and Lavalle (1994) measured each subject using the Canadian Association for Physical Education and Recreation (CAHPER) field performance test. This test was administered in early June and late October each year. Within two weeks of their birthday, the students were measured for aerobic power and muscle strength. The focus of the experimental group was to provide cardiovascular and muscular endurance activities. The increase of their heart rate was the main goal. Categories that were measured by the researchers were peak oxygen intake, muscular strength, and Body mass index. There were six items on the CAHPER performance that were observed.
Data were analyzed using Shephard and Lavalle (1994) MANOVA to compare the differences between groups. The results for the physical characteristics showed only significant differences among girls’ age seven and eight in relation to height. The girls in the urban schools were significantly taller than the girls in the rural school. The performance test showed that the boys were significantly (p < .05) superior in 29 of 36 comparisons. The boys also had higher peak oxygen intake at a significant level (p < .05). The MANOVA also showed that the experimental group reported a higher average strength. This was significant in 21 of 36 tests (p < .05).

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part V

Essays — Wed, 20 Jan 2010 09:45:57 +0000

Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Mirjana, Rajic, and Shephard (1996) conducted a long-term follow up study of the participants in the previously mentioned Trios-Rivieres study. This study took place some 20 years after the participants’ initial involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of daily primary physical education on their now adult life. Areas investigated were level of habitual physical activity, the different types of activities, and the attitudes towards physical activity. This study was done by contacting participants 20 years after they had participated in the Trios-Rivieres study. During that study, 546 primary students of both genders were placed into two groups, experimental or control. The experimental group received five hours of physical education per week targeted at increasing muscular and aerobic capacity. The control group received the standard physical education of 40 minutes per week taught by the homeroom teacher.

During the follow up study, 178 of the original 272 experimental group members were contacted. Each of those participants were sent a questionnaire and consent form. One hundred forty-nine of the questionnaire and consent forms were returned. Due to concerns of cross contamination over the twenty-year period, the experimental groups status was compared to a matched control group from a Quebec health survey (1993). The control group was matched in terms of age, language, and socioeconomic profile.

Results, according to Trudeau et al (1996) were calculated by using SPSS system. A two sample chi-squared test (p < 0.05) was applied to frequency distributions to assess the statistical significance of differences between groups. A t-test (p < 0.05) was applied to evaluate differences in height and body mass. As a whole the experimental group did not show a higher frequency of physical activity than the control group. However, the women did show a higher frequency of physical activity (p<0.01). There were no differences between the groups in regards toward intention to practice physical activity. There were no reportable differences in attitudes between the control and experimental group, as well as between genders. The experimental group did not show that they had more opportunities to practice physical activity. When genders were combined the experimental group showed a lower proportion of regular smokers than the control group (p < 0.01). However, when separated there were no differences between women in either group. As far as height and weight, the experimental men reported a higher height (p < 0.05) and greater body weight (p < 0.01) than the control men.

The general consensus was that more activity during childhood benefited adulthood. However, this study does not support this consensus. The results of this follow up study were very discouraging. The study was considered to be the first adult follow up in regards to physical activity habits. Trudeau et al (1996)

In reporting weakness of the study, Trudeau et al (1996) discussed the impossibility of administering more sophisticated questionnaires to the subjects. The fact that the female subjects reacted more positively to the experiment was addressed. In Canada, during the time of the original study in the early 1970’s, it was relatively unusual for girls to socialize in sport or leisure activity. After the 1976 Olympic games in Montreal, females showed a strong interest toward sports and physical activity. This trend could have had an impact on the study, but there is no way of putting the two together. One strength of the study according to Trudeau et al (1996) was the original well-controlled manipulation, which allowed for increased time on physical activity in the experimental group of children. Another strength was the rate of return of the questionnaire, which reduced the possibility of selection bias. The study showed that there is much research needed to prove that more primary physical education will positively affect adult life.

Janz, Dawson, and Mahoney (2000) also examined effects of physical activity past childhood. The purpose of this study was to track fitness and physical activity data to grasp a better understanding of when children establish long-term fitness and exercise patterns. This study, also known as the Muscatine study, was a longitudinal; population based investigation of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children from Muscatine, IA. After a cross sectional screening of 925 Muscatine school children, 150 subjects of pre-pubertal age were selected. After the parents were contacted and consent was given, only 130 subjects were able to participate. Four of the 130 were discarded after physical examines showed that they had already begun significant pubertal development. Out of the 126 subjects, 64 were males and 62 were females. All subjects completed the baseline research procedures. After five years, 87% of the subjects attempted all of the research procedures. All of the subjects tested were Caucasian.

The fact that the subjects were randomly selected reduced the chances of threats to internal validity. The sample size was derived from a wide cross-section of socioeconomic status and ethnic groups. The weakness of the study was the fact that there were no control schools in phase II. Furthermore, there were some reported differences in the way each school implemented its physical activity programs for this study. Overall, it was a very strong study that remained consistent with similar studies (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997)). Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Mirjana, Rajic, and Shephard (1996) conducted a long-term follow up study of the participants in the previously mentioned Trios-Rivieres study. This study took place some 20 years after the participants’ initial involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of daily primary physical education on their now adult life. Areas investigated were level of habitual physical activity, the different types of activities, and the attitudes towards physical activity. This study was done by contacting participants 20 years after they had participated in the Trios-Rivieres study. During that study, 546 primary students of both genders were placed into two groups, experimental or control. The experimental group received five hours of physical education per week targeted at increasing muscular and aerobic capacity. The control group received the standard physical education of 40 minutes per week taught by the homeroom teacher.During the follow up study, 178 of the original 272 experimental group members were contacted. Each of those participants were sent a questionnaire and consent form. One hundred forty-nine of the questionnaire and consent forms were returned. Due to concerns of cross contamination over the twenty-year period, the experimental groups status was compared to a matched control group from a Quebec health survey (1993). The control group was matched in terms of age, language, and socioeconomic profile.Results, according to Trudeau et al (1996) were calculated by using SPSS system. A two sample chi-squared test (p < 0.05) was applied to frequency distributions to assess the statistical significance of differences between groups. A t-test (p < 0.05) was applied to evaluate differences in height and body mass. As a whole the experimental group did not show a higher frequency of physical activity than the control group. However, the women did show a higher frequency of physical activity (p<0.01). There were no differences between the groups in regards toward intention to practice physical activity. There were no reportable differences in attitudes between the control and experimental group, as well as between genders. The experimental group did not show that they had more opportunities to practice physical activity. When genders were combined the experimental group showed a lower proportion of regular smokers than the control group (p < 0.01). However, when separated there were no differences between women in either group. As far as height and weight, the experimental men reported a higher height (p < 0.05) and greater body weight (p < 0.01) than the control men.The general consensus was that more activity during childhood benefited adulthood. However, this study does not support this consensus. The results of this follow up study were very discouraging. The study was considered to be the first adult follow up in regards to physical activity habits. Trudeau et al (1996)In reporting weakness of the study, Trudeau et al (1996) discussed the impossibility of administering more sophisticated questionnaires to the subjects. The fact that the female subjects reacted more positively to the experiment was addressed. In Canada, during the time of the original study in the early 1970’s, it was relatively unusual for girls to socialize in sport or leisure activity. After the 1976 Olympic games in Montreal, females showed a strong interest toward sports and physical activity. This trend could have had an impact on the study, but there is no way of putting the two together. One strength of the study according to Trudeau et al (1996) was the original well-controlled manipulation, which allowed for increased time on physical activity in the experimental group of children. Another strength was the rate of return of the questionnaire, which reduced the possibility of selection bias. The study showed that there is much research needed to prove that more primary physical education will positively affect adult life.Janz, Dawson, and Mahoney (2000) also examined effects of physical activity past childhood. The purpose of this study was to track fitness and physical activity data to grasp a better understanding of when children establish long-term fitness and exercise patterns. This study, also known as the Muscatine study, was a longitudinal; population based investigation of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children from Muscatine, IA. After a cross sectional screening of 925 Muscatine school children, 150 subjects of pre-pubertal age were selected. After the parents were contacted and consent was given, only 130 subjects were able to participate. Four of the 130 were discarded after physical examines showed that they had already begun significant pubertal development. Out of the 126 subjects, 64 were males and 62 were females. All subjects completed the baseline research procedures. After five years, 87% of the subjects attempted all of the research procedures. All of the subjects tested were Caucasian.

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part IV

Essays — Tue, 19 Jan 2010 10:58:09 +0000

Data in Shephard (1997) were analyzed using the MANOVA test. Results after one year of observation were consistent with other studies on physical activity and academic performance (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard,1997). In grade one, the control group had slightly better grades on average. However, in grades 2 through 6 the experimental students out performed the control group at a significant level of p < .001 using, an ANOVA. A MANOVA test indicated significant gender differences with girls gaining larger academic advantages than the boys in the experimental group. The impact of the experimental group on academic achievement was measured by categorical comparison between classes. According to Shephard (1997), the experimental group indicated advantages in French, Math, English, and Natural science. The only academic subjects where the experimental group received any poorer marks were Natural science and English, but they still had more comparisons in their favor. In a province-wide 6th grade exam, the experimental group showed a significant advantage in mathematics (p < .001). They showed no significant differences in French, and had lower ratings at a significant level in English and “overall intelligence” (p < .001).
The length of the Shephard (1997) study was undoubtedly a strong point. There were no major weaknesses in the study except for the 6th grade exam, which Shephard stated was left open to cramming of the test materials. That cramming took place in the classroom instruction, thus leaving the experimental group at a disadvantage. The classroom comparisons balanced out those results. The results of Shephard (1997) still were consistent of similar studies (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997)) where he suggested that academic performance is maintained and possibly even enhanced by added physical activity. He also goes on to suggest that despite reducing academic instruction time for added physical education, you can still have academic success.
Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, and Baghurst (1983) conducted a second phase of the Australian study previously mentioned. Their study was performed in 1980 in Adelaid, Australia. Phase II was conducted two years after phase I which meant the students had been participating in daily physical education programs, which were adopted at the completion of phase I. Phase I consisted of 500 fifth grade students while Phase II only 216 fifth graders. The students were randomly selected from five out of the initial seven schools used in the first study. There were three groups used in the study. The control group received the normal physical education of 30 minutes three times per week. The skill group, which focused on skill development, received 75 hours of physical education daily, with 15 minutes taking place in the early morning. The fitness group received the same amount of time as the skill group, but the focus was on activities that raised the heart rate. The study lasted 14 weeks with the subjects being measured one-week prior and following the study. The variables observed were physical health, psychological functioning, and academic performance. The personnel responsible for collecting data were not aware of group assignment. The same personnel made both pre and post test measurements. Height and weight measurements were recorded using the Body Mass Index (wt/ht2). Skin folds were assessed using the Harpender skin caliper. Blood pressure was assessed using a standard sphygmomanometer. Endurance fitness was assessed using PWC 170 otherwise known as physical work capacity at a heart rate of 170. This was calculated on a bicycle ergometer. Results of academic performance were measured by ACER arithmetic test, GAP reading test, and the KAB child Behavior Scale. Phase II followed strict parameters with phase I forms of measurement.
Results of the Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, and Baghurst (1983) study were compared with the results from the 1978 phase I study. The PWC 170 was superior for both genders in the phase II study (p < .01). There was a significant decrease in body fat in both genders (p < .05). There was a reduction in overall body weight in the phase II subjects; however it was not at a significant level. The ACER arithmetic test showed no significant differences. The result according to Dwyer et al (1983), confirmed with other studies (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997) that added physical education is not detrimental to academics. The study also supported that there are health benefits for students who have daily physical education at school.

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part III

Essays — Mon, 18 Jan 2010 10:17:08 +0000

Shephard (1997) conducted a metanalysis of previous studies that examined the impact of daily physical education on academic performance. He focused on studies performed in Vanves, France, Australia, Trois Rivieres, and Quebec. All of these studies focused on academic performance when a substantial amount of the school day (14-26 percent) was allocated to physical activity.
According to Shephard (1997), the Vanves study was conducted in 1950, and was a longitudinal, experimental study. Students at an experimental school had their school week lengthened from 32 hours to 41.5 hours. Academic instruction was reduced by 26 percent and was limited to the mornings. The afternoons consisted of a wide variety of physical activity, along with two nap (rest) periods between 1:00 and 1:30 and 4:30 to 5:00. The experimental group was also given regular vitamin supplements. The control group was a nonrandomized-selected group of students from other schools in Paris. Results were measured by the percent of students that passed the end of grade test otherwise known as the “certificate of study”. One out of 14 experimental students failed the “certificate of study”. Despite having academic instruction cut by 26 percent, there were no differences between experimental and control groups in the number of students who failed the test. It was also reported Shephard (1997) that the students in the experimental group appeared more calm and attentive, with fewer disciplinary problems.
Shephard (1997) also reported on the Australian study, otherwise known as the SHAPE study. The School Health, Academic Performance and Exercise study involved 519 fifth grade students from seven self-selected schools in Adelaid, Australia. The study was an experimental study involving three groups; fitness, skill, and control. The students were randomly selected to participate in a 14-week study in one of the three groups. The fitness and skill group each received 75 minutes of physical activity daily, with 15 minutes taking place in the early morning. The only difference was the focus of each group. The fitness group focused on fitness-oriented material, while the skill group worked on skill development. The control group received 30 minutes of physical education per week. Forms of measurement included skin fold assessment, PWC (physical work capacity at a heart rate of 170), arithmetic, reading, and classroom behavior. There was no information given on the types of test used to obtain this data. There were also no reports of a p value given in Shephard (1997).
The results were consistent with other related studies (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984). Despite having reduced academic instruction time, the experimental group showed no significant differences in regards to arithmetic or reading gains. There was a trend towards a gain in arithmetic scores and a significant gain in behavior scores in the fitness group according to Shephard (1997). The fitness group faired the best on the skin fold test by decreasing an average of 1.3 mm while on the PWC, they increased by an average of 14 W. The skill group had a slight increase in skin fold at 0.4 mm and a small increase of PWC of less than 10 W. The control group had the worst scores with an average increase in skin folds at 0.9 mm and the smallest increase in PWC with an average barely over 8 W.
One weakness of the study was the length. The duration was only14 weeks. Subjects were not randomly selected which damages the internal validity. The lack of information on the types of test in Shephard (1997) also made the study very weak. There were no p values given for the data. Small sample size also showed a weakness. The study did however measure many variables, which was a positive aspect. The results definitely suggested that further research should be done.
Shephard (1997) also reported on the Trois Rivieres study. This study was an experimental field study that involved 546 primary school students from an urban and rural school. The experimental group received an extra hour of physical education daily, taught by a physical education specialist. Control students were selected from classes that preceded or succeeded the experimental classes at the same schools. They received only the normal amount of physical education, which was one 40-minute class a week taught by a non-specialist. The control group received 13-14 percent more academic instruction. Academic achievement was measured by unweighted classroom marks in French, math, English (upper grades only), natural science and conduct (based on the average of five annual assessments).