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Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part VII

Essays — Fri, 22 Jan 2010 18:37:16 +0000

Caterino and Polak (1999) conducted a second study that looked at the effects physical activity had on concentration. Administrators and teachers are constantly criticizing what part of the school day that physical education should take place. There is a constant concern that physical education will influence testing and classroom learning. This study was a follow up study that Caterino and Polak conducted in 1994. In the previous study, fourth grade was the only grade used.
Caterino et al. administered the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Concentration to a group of second, third and fourth graders. The students in the test were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: classroom activity or physical activity. Grade two consisted of 54 students, with 27 in each group. Grade three was made up of 71 students with 36 in the classroom group and 35 in the physical activity group. Grade four consisted of 52 students with 27 in the classroom group and 25 in the physical activity group.
According to Caterino and Polak (1999), the classroom activities group did not use pre-designed activities; however, all activities were grade level appropriate, and approved through weekly lesson plans. On the day of the test, the classroom activities group went immediately into the library to take the test, while the physical activities group went into the gym to stretch and walk. The physical activity group remained in the gym for 15 minutes then went directly to take the test. Both groups were given the same test with the same instructions.
Date from Caterino and Polak (1999) were analyzed using both a one-way ANOVA and a two-way ANOVA. The Scheffe multiple comparison test was also used. The one-way ANOVA was performed on fourth grade scores. The results indicated that the mean concentration score of the physical activity group was significantly greater than that of the classroom activity group (p = .05). The two-way ANOVA showed overall significance (p = .001). However, when the mean scores were compared between grades two and three, they were not significant. Furthermore, the Scheffe test revealed no significant differences between grades two and three, but showed that the physical activity group in the fourth grade out performed the classroom activity group.
The Caterino and Polak (1999) study was important in demonstrating how that physical education does not interfere with concentration levels of the students who were tested. This supports other studies that claim that physical education should not be cut in order to achieve academic success. (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997; Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983; Janz, Dawson, & Mahoney, 2000; Sallis, McKenzie, Kolody, Lewis, Marshall & Rosengard, 1999)
Shephard and Lavalle (1994) examined the value of field performance test in assessing enhanced physical education programs. It was an experimental design that took place in two primary schools in Quebec. One school was located in a middle class suburb of Trois Rivieres (population 100,000), and the other from the village of Pont Rouge (population about 4000). The study consisted of 546 volunteer students between grades one-six. There were 161 boys and 134 girls in the four experimental classes, and 128 boys and 123 girls in the control classes. Two hundred thirty six of the subjects were from the urban school and 310 from the rural school. The two schools each had two experimental classes and two control classes. The control classes preceded and immediately succeeded the experimental groups. The guidelines for the experiment were that the control groups received the norm of a single physical education class per week, taught by a non-specialist. The experimental group received one hour of extra physical education daily, taught by a physical education specialist.
Shephard and Lavalle (1994) measured each subject using the Canadian Association for Physical Education and Recreation (CAHPER) field performance test. This test was administered in early June and late October each year. Within two weeks of their birthday, the students were measured for aerobic power and muscle strength. The focus of the experimental group was to provide cardiovascular and muscular endurance activities. The increase of their heart rate was the main goal. Categories that were measured by the researchers were peak oxygen intake, muscular strength, and Body mass index. There were six items on the CAHPER performance that were observed.
Data were analyzed using Shephard and Lavalle (1994) MANOVA to compare the differences between groups. The results for the physical characteristics showed only significant differences among girls’ age seven and eight in relation to height. The girls in the urban schools were significantly taller than the girls in the rural school. The performance test showed that the boys were significantly (p < .05) superior in 29 of 36 comparisons. The boys also had higher peak oxygen intake at a significant level (p < .05). The MANOVA also showed that the experimental group reported a higher average strength. This was significant in 21 of 36 tests (p < .05).

Dissertation: Physical Education and Academic Performance – Literature Review. Part V

Essays — Wed, 20 Jan 2010 09:45:57 +0000

Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Mirjana, Rajic, and Shephard (1996) conducted a long-term follow up study of the participants in the previously mentioned Trios-Rivieres study. This study took place some 20 years after the participants’ initial involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of daily primary physical education on their now adult life. Areas investigated were level of habitual physical activity, the different types of activities, and the attitudes towards physical activity. This study was done by contacting participants 20 years after they had participated in the Trios-Rivieres study. During that study, 546 primary students of both genders were placed into two groups, experimental or control. The experimental group received five hours of physical education per week targeted at increasing muscular and aerobic capacity. The control group received the standard physical education of 40 minutes per week taught by the homeroom teacher.

During the follow up study, 178 of the original 272 experimental group members were contacted. Each of those participants were sent a questionnaire and consent form. One hundred forty-nine of the questionnaire and consent forms were returned. Due to concerns of cross contamination over the twenty-year period, the experimental groups status was compared to a matched control group from a Quebec health survey (1993). The control group was matched in terms of age, language, and socioeconomic profile.

Results, according to Trudeau et al (1996) were calculated by using SPSS system. A two sample chi-squared test (p < 0.05) was applied to frequency distributions to assess the statistical significance of differences between groups. A t-test (p < 0.05) was applied to evaluate differences in height and body mass. As a whole the experimental group did not show a higher frequency of physical activity than the control group. However, the women did show a higher frequency of physical activity (p<0.01). There were no differences between the groups in regards toward intention to practice physical activity. There were no reportable differences in attitudes between the control and experimental group, as well as between genders. The experimental group did not show that they had more opportunities to practice physical activity. When genders were combined the experimental group showed a lower proportion of regular smokers than the control group (p < 0.01). However, when separated there were no differences between women in either group. As far as height and weight, the experimental men reported a higher height (p < 0.05) and greater body weight (p < 0.01) than the control men.

The general consensus was that more activity during childhood benefited adulthood. However, this study does not support this consensus. The results of this follow up study were very discouraging. The study was considered to be the first adult follow up in regards to physical activity habits. Trudeau et al (1996)

In reporting weakness of the study, Trudeau et al (1996) discussed the impossibility of administering more sophisticated questionnaires to the subjects. The fact that the female subjects reacted more positively to the experiment was addressed. In Canada, during the time of the original study in the early 1970’s, it was relatively unusual for girls to socialize in sport or leisure activity. After the 1976 Olympic games in Montreal, females showed a strong interest toward sports and physical activity. This trend could have had an impact on the study, but there is no way of putting the two together. One strength of the study according to Trudeau et al (1996) was the original well-controlled manipulation, which allowed for increased time on physical activity in the experimental group of children. Another strength was the rate of return of the questionnaire, which reduced the possibility of selection bias. The study showed that there is much research needed to prove that more primary physical education will positively affect adult life.

Janz, Dawson, and Mahoney (2000) also examined effects of physical activity past childhood. The purpose of this study was to track fitness and physical activity data to grasp a better understanding of when children establish long-term fitness and exercise patterns. This study, also known as the Muscatine study, was a longitudinal; population based investigation of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children from Muscatine, IA. After a cross sectional screening of 925 Muscatine school children, 150 subjects of pre-pubertal age were selected. After the parents were contacted and consent was given, only 130 subjects were able to participate. Four of the 130 were discarded after physical examines showed that they had already begun significant pubertal development. Out of the 126 subjects, 64 were males and 62 were females. All subjects completed the baseline research procedures. After five years, 87% of the subjects attempted all of the research procedures. All of the subjects tested were Caucasian.

The fact that the subjects were randomly selected reduced the chances of threats to internal validity. The sample size was derived from a wide cross-section of socioeconomic status and ethnic groups. The weakness of the study was the fact that there were no control schools in phase II. Furthermore, there were some reported differences in the way each school implemented its physical activity programs for this study. Overall, it was a very strong study that remained consistent with similar studies (Caterino & Polak, 1993; Caterino, & Polak, 1999; Labarre, Jequier, Shephard, Lavalle, & Rajic, 1984; Shephard, 1997)). Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Mirjana, Rajic, and Shephard (1996) conducted a long-term follow up study of the participants in the previously mentioned Trios-Rivieres study. This study took place some 20 years after the participants’ initial involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of daily primary physical education on their now adult life. Areas investigated were level of habitual physical activity, the different types of activities, and the attitudes towards physical activity. This study was done by contacting participants 20 years after they had participated in the Trios-Rivieres study. During that study, 546 primary students of both genders were placed into two groups, experimental or control. The experimental group received five hours of physical education per week targeted at increasing muscular and aerobic capacity. The control group received the standard physical education of 40 minutes per week taught by the homeroom teacher.During the follow up study, 178 of the original 272 experimental group members were contacted. Each of those participants were sent a questionnaire and consent form. One hundred forty-nine of the questionnaire and consent forms were returned. Due to concerns of cross contamination over the twenty-year period, the experimental groups status was compared to a matched control group from a Quebec health survey (1993). The control group was matched in terms of age, language, and socioeconomic profile.Results, according to Trudeau et al (1996) were calculated by using SPSS system. A two sample chi-squared test (p < 0.05) was applied to frequency distributions to assess the statistical significance of differences between groups. A t-test (p < 0.05) was applied to evaluate differences in height and body mass. As a whole the experimental group did not show a higher frequency of physical activity than the control group. However, the women did show a higher frequency of physical activity (p<0.01). There were no differences between the groups in regards toward intention to practice physical activity. There were no reportable differences in attitudes between the control and experimental group, as well as between genders. The experimental group did not show that they had more opportunities to practice physical activity. When genders were combined the experimental group showed a lower proportion of regular smokers than the control group (p < 0.01). However, when separated there were no differences between women in either group. As far as height and weight, the experimental men reported a higher height (p < 0.05) and greater body weight (p < 0.01) than the control men.The general consensus was that more activity during childhood benefited adulthood. However, this study does not support this consensus. The results of this follow up study were very discouraging. The study was considered to be the first adult follow up in regards to physical activity habits. Trudeau et al (1996)In reporting weakness of the study, Trudeau et al (1996) discussed the impossibility of administering more sophisticated questionnaires to the subjects. The fact that the female subjects reacted more positively to the experiment was addressed. In Canada, during the time of the original study in the early 1970’s, it was relatively unusual for girls to socialize in sport or leisure activity. After the 1976 Olympic games in Montreal, females showed a strong interest toward sports and physical activity. This trend could have had an impact on the study, but there is no way of putting the two together. One strength of the study according to Trudeau et al (1996) was the original well-controlled manipulation, which allowed for increased time on physical activity in the experimental group of children. Another strength was the rate of return of the questionnaire, which reduced the possibility of selection bias. The study showed that there is much research needed to prove that more primary physical education will positively affect adult life.Janz, Dawson, and Mahoney (2000) also examined effects of physical activity past childhood. The purpose of this study was to track fitness and physical activity data to grasp a better understanding of when children establish long-term fitness and exercise patterns. This study, also known as the Muscatine study, was a longitudinal; population based investigation of cardiovascular disease risk factors in children from Muscatine, IA. After a cross sectional screening of 925 Muscatine school children, 150 subjects of pre-pubertal age were selected. After the parents were contacted and consent was given, only 130 subjects were able to participate. Four of the 130 were discarded after physical examines showed that they had already begun significant pubertal development. Out of the 126 subjects, 64 were males and 62 were females. All subjects completed the baseline research procedures. After five years, 87% of the subjects attempted all of the research procedures. All of the subjects tested were Caucasian.